---
slug: sing-sang-sung
passed: 2026-10-14
by: the assay line (research/assay-line/cited-1014b/), Codex fixer directed by claude-assaying-boyle-1014; source record by Codex, checked by Codex
checked: 280
confirmed: 245
wrong: 35
unverifiable: 0
observed: 0
stale: 0
---

This was the directed repair pass over all 35 items in research/assay-line/cited-1014b/sing-sang-sung/triage.json at f5e5f84f34, with the fixer re-reading the evidence before each edit. Thirty WRONG items share eighteen errors corrected within this layer; the Codex repair follow-up on 2026-10-14 confirmed two errors still copied in other layers, held below with PENDING board notes. Four listed MINOR items remain unchanged, and X9 is CONFIRMED because the proposed notation correction was rejected with independent evidence. The pass also fixes one MINOR verifier label. The 244 further CONFIRMED lines below retain the source checks and wording recorded by Codex in N2-codex.md at the pinned revision; they are the checker's re-reads, not a claim that the fixer independently repeated all 244. The five MINOR lines count in wrong, with their individual dispositions. Original claim punctuation encoded as \u2014 is retained as an escape, not as a literal character. No STALE finding was directed; dateModified advances for these corrections without an Updated line.

## Claims

- WRONG | X1: "Why is it sing, sang, sung \u2014 but never bring, brang, brung?" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brang; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/brung | Fixer re-read: Wiktionary labels brang a nonstandard past and brung a nonstandard past/participle of bring. The English forms exist. Shared error: bring-dialect-exclusion.
- WRONG | X2: "These are the strong verbs, and the vowel-swap isn't random English messiness: it is ablaut, a system of vowel alternation inherited intact from Proto-Indo-European, six thousand years deep." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Classes 1 to 6, places the IV/V past-plural long vowel within Germanic; data.mjs EDGES already records that innovation. This contradicts intact inheritance. Shared error: ablaut-inherited-intact.
- WRONG | X3: "Germanic philology sorts them onto seven shelves, and what decides the shelf is simply what follows the root vowel \u2014 a glide, a nasal, a liquid, a single consonant." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: The class definitions distinguish I-V largely by following sounds, VI by its vowel pattern and VII by reduplication. The local VI and VII panels are direct counterexamples to the universal rule. Shared error: seven-classes-by-following-sounds.
- WRONG | X4: "Each shelf has its own fixed vowel pattern across the four old principal parts." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: The Class 7 source gives distinct subclasses; the local VII panel has four placeholders and explicitly says it is not defined by one ablaut series. Shared error: class-seven-fixed-vowel-pattern.
- WRONG | X5: "Modern English forms have been battered by later sound changes \u2014 the Great Vowel Shift above all \u2014 so today's drive/drove/driven looks less tidy than its ancestor *drīban / draif / dribun / dribans." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dr%C4%ABban%C4%85 | Fixer re-read: The cited Proto-Germanic conjugation gives *drībaną, *draib, *dribun and *dribanaz. The Gothic table has draif and dribans. The printed series mixed languages. Shared error: drive-mixed-paradigm.
- WRONG | X6: "And the old members keep defecting: help was once strong (healp, holpen), climb was clomb, chew was chew/chowen." | https://wehd.com/15/Chew_v.html | Fixer re-read: Murray's Chew Forms paragraph records Old English past céaw, cuwon and participle cowen. It distinguishes the later analogical chewen; chew/chowen is not that principal-parts series. Shared error: chew-misstated-principal-parts.
- WRONG | X7: "A few verbs that were always weak grew a strong-looking past by sheer analogy \u2014 the pattern still has a faint pull." | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove | Fixer re-read: The dove entry links dive to both Old English strong dufan and weak dyfan, and says dived preceded modern dove. Always weak therefore fails for a named example. Shared error: always-weak-ancestry.
- WRONG | X8: "chew was chew/chowen" | https://wehd.com/15/Chew_v.html | Fixer re-read: Murray's Chew Forms paragraph records Old English past céaw, cuwon and participle cowen. It distinguishes the later analogical chewen; chew/chowen is not that principal-parts series. Shared error: chew-misstated-principal-parts.
- CONFIRMED | X9: "ride·rode·ridden to ride Class I ablaut grades: present e-grade (ei→ī) · past-sg o-grade (oi→ai) · participle zero-grade Proto-Germanic: *rīdaną · *raid · *ridun · *ridanaz · PIE root *reydʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/r%C4%ABdan%C4%85; https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/lex/master/1605 | REJECTED finding. Wiktionary uses *Hreydʰ-, but the University of Texas lexicon independently records the traditional reidh- root without the initial laryngeal. The page uses that established reconstruction in a standard transcription and does not claim a verbatim Wiktionary quotation. A different reconstruction in the source record does not establish a false claim. This is the directing triage reason, independently re-read by the fixer.
- WRONG | X10: "The o-grade gives bairn, barrow and bier." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bier; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/b%C4%93r%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/b%C4%93riz | Fixer re-read: The bier entry gives *bērō; that reconstruction derives from *bēriz, described as a vrddhi gerundive of *beraną. The long e supports a lengthened e-grade formation, not the short o-grade list. Shared error: bier-o-grade.
- WRONG | X11: "drive·drove·driven to drive Class I ablaut grades: present e-grade · past-sg o-grade · participle zero-grade Proto-Germanic: *drībaną · *draif · *dribun · *dribanaz · PIE root *dʰreybʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dr%C4%ABban%C4%85 | Fixer re-read: The cited Proto-Germanic conjugation gives *drībaną, *draib, *dribun and *dribanaz. The Gothic table has draif and dribans. The printed series mixed languages. Shared error: drive-mixed-paradigm.
- WRONG | X12: "Wiktionary *gebaną \u2014 note the participle is giv-EN (e-grade), not '-un'" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | Fixer re-read: English irregular verbs describes -[e]n as an ending in given and ridden. The Class V paradigm has root geb- in *gebanaz. The root vowel, not the English suffix, carries the grade. Shared error: participle-suffix-as-ablaut-grade.
- WRONG | X13: "V root vowel + a single obstruent e present·a past sg.·ē past pl.·e participle e.g. *gebaną · *gab · *gēbun · *gebanaz \u2014 to give Like Class IV, but the participle keeps the e-grade (giv-en, not '-un') \u2014 an obstruent root has no sonorant to trigger the inserted u. The long-ē past plural is, again, a Germanic innovation, not PIE. give / gave / given eat / ate / eaten see / saw / seen sit / sat / sat speak / spoke / spoken 'sit' has leveled its past and participle to one vowel (sat); 'speak' drifted in from a neighbouring pattern." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Modern English Class 5, says speak came from Class V and is now Class IV. The page reversed that direction. Shared error: speak-class-direction.
- WRONG | X14: "Like Class IV, but the participle keeps the e-grade (giv-en, not '-un') \u2014 an obstruent root has no sonorant to trigger the inserted u." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | Fixer re-read: English irregular verbs describes -[e]n as an ending in given and ridden. The Class V paradigm has root geb- in *gebanaz. The root vowel, not the English suffix, carries the grade. Shared error: participle-suffix-as-ablaut-grade.
- WRONG | X15: "'sit' has leveled its past and participle to one vowel (sat); 'speak' drifted in from a neighbouring pattern." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Modern English Class 5, says speak came from Class V and is now Class IV. The page reversed that direction. Shared error: speak-class-direction.
- WRONG | X16: "Proto-Germanic *sangwaz \u2014 Wiktionary states it outright: 'an o-grade nominal derived from *singwaną.'" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz; https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz&oldid=91360563 | Fixer re-read: The current sangwaz entry and revision 91360563, retrieved directly with curl, both begin Perhaps and contain intervening reconstructed forms. The earlier revision predates the layer. The original attribution and unmarked abridgment were false when written. Shared error: song-source-certainty.
- WRONG | X17: "The o-grade gives bairn, barrow and bier." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bier; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/b%C4%93r%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/b%C4%93riz | Fixer re-read: The bier entry gives *bērō; that reconstruction derives from *bēriz, described as a vrddhi gerundive of *beraną. The long e supports a lengthened e-grade formation, not the short o-grade list. Shared error: bier-o-grade.
- WRONG | X18: "Proto-Germanic *sangwaz \u2014 Wiktionary states it outright: 'an o-grade nominal derived from *singwaną.'" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz; https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz&oldid=91360563 | Fixer re-read: The current sangwaz entry and revision 91360563, retrieved directly with curl, both begin Perhaps and contain intervening reconstructed forms. The earlier revision predates the layer. The original attribution and unmarked abridgment were false when written. Shared error: song-source-certainty.
- MINOR | X19: "Their headline law is exact and a little eerie \u2014 the half-life of an irregular verb scales as the square root of how often it is spoken (a verb used 100 times less often regularizes about 10 times faster)." | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | Listed without editing. Directing triage reason: I re-read and visually inspected Lieberman et al. (2007), https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf, p. 714. The fitted rates have slopes near -0.51 and -0.48, and the half-life discussion says "approximately". The square-root model and 100-to-10 illustration are supported; exact overstates empirical precision. Keep MINOR and list at tier C. X20/X21 affect the following sentence, so their quotation correction does not trigger the same-sentence exception here.
- WRONG | X20: "So the commonest verbs are effectively immortal, while the rarest are already dissolving; the authors even named the next domino \u2014 wed, at 4.2 uses per million, 'your last chance to be a newly-wed.'" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | Fixer re-read: The rendered p. 715 prints newly wed with a space and inner quotation marks; it states 4.2 uses per million verbs. The printed page was inspected, not inferred from PDF extraction. Shared error: newly-wed-altered-quotation.
- WRONG | X21: "'your last chance to be a newly-wed.'" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | Fixer re-read: The rendered p. 715 prints newly wed with a space and inner quotation marks; it states 4.2 uses per million verbs. The printed page was inspected, not inferred from PDF extraction. Shared error: newly-wed-altered-quotation.
- WRONG | X22: "Lieberman's six frequency bins, each with its modeled half-life." | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf; git show f5e5f84f34:research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs | Fixer re-read: The rendered Table 1 on p. 714 has six bins, including 5,400 years and 10% regularization. DRIFT.freq has five entries and the renderer maps those entries directly. Five is counted from the local data. Shared error: six-bins-five-displayed.
- WRONG | X23: "Lieberman's six frequency bins, each with its modeled half-life." | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf; git show f5e5f84f34:research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs | Fixer re-read: The rendered Table 1 on p. 714 has six bins, including 5,400 years and 10% regularization. DRIFT.freq has five entries and the renderer maps those entries directly. Five is counted from the local data. Shared error: six-bins-five-displayed.
- MINOR | X24: "by analogy with drive→drove; 'dive' was historically weak (Bartlett flagged 'dove' as an Americanism in 1859)." | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove | Listed without editing. Directing triage reason: I re-read https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove, its dive-history paragraph: the proposed drive/drove analogy is introduced with "perhaps". It still supports the weak Modern English form, the modern emergence of dove, and the Bartlett date. The note identifies overconfident wording of a plausible etymological explanation, not proof of a different origin. Keep MINOR and list at tier C; this is not the sentence corrected for X7. X31 duplicates the same qualification issue.
- MINOR | X25: "weak in disguise \u2014 the -t gives it away. 'Catch' is a French loan once spelled 'catched'; 'caught' came by analogy with 'latch→laught'." | https://www.etymonline.com/word/catch; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | Listed without editing. Directing triage reason: Decided from the lone MINOR note under rule 4. The checker supports the loanword and earlier catched, while the proposed lacchen/laught influence is qualified rather than disproved. Record the omitted uncertainty as loose causal wording at tier C. This sentence is not otherwise being fixed for a WRONG item. Do not change the weak-verb classification merely because an etymological source uses strong loosely.
- WRONG | X26: "For song and road, Wiktionary states 'o-grade nominal' outright." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz; https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz&oldid=91360563 | Fixer re-read: The current sangwaz entry and revision 91360563, retrieved directly with curl, both begin Perhaps and contain intervening reconstructed forms. The earlier revision predates the layer. The original attribution and unmarked abridgment were false when written. Shared error: song-source-certainty.
- WRONG | X27: "Watch one root carry three vowels; sort the verbs onto their seven shelves; wake the o-grade noun that froze out of each verb; and read a measured, citable law off the slow death of the strong system." | research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs (FROZEN) | Fixer re-read: The local FROZEN array labels drift, a bit and burden zero-grade, alongside three o-grade nouns. The universal o-grade framing conflicts with the data. Shared error: all-frozen-nouns-o-grade.
- WRONG | X28: "It is ablaut, a system of vowel alternation inherited intact from Proto-Indo-European, six thousand years deep." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Classes 1 to 6, places the IV/V past-plural long vowel within Germanic; data.mjs EDGES already records that innovation. This contradicts intact inheritance. Shared error: ablaut-inherited-intact.
- WRONG | X29: "Made runnable: a wall of verbs caught changing from the inside; the seven shelves the strong verbs sort onto (decided by what follows the vowel); the o-grade nouns hiding in plain sight; and the measured, citable tide: Lieberman et al.'s law that an irregular verb's half-life scales as the square root of how often it is spoken, so the rare ones dissolve first (wed is next) while be and have are effectively immortal." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: The class definitions distinguish I-V largely by following sounds, VI by its vowel pattern and VII by reduplication. The local VI and VII panels are direct counterexamples to the universal rule. Shared error: seven-classes-by-following-sounds.
- WRONG | X30: "Consonants there, vowels here; and Jacob Grimm, who coined the very word 'ablaut' in 1819, gave his name to the consonant law." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | Fixer re-read: Indo-European ablaut, Overview, says the word preceded Grimm, including Schottelius, and attributes the 1819 technical sense to Grimm. GRIMM in local data already has the correct sense qualification. Shared error: grimm-word-coinage.
- MINOR | X31: "by analogy with drive→drove" | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove | Listed without editing. Directing triage reason: I re-read https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove: the dive-history paragraph introduces the drive/drove explanation with "perhaps". It supports that analogy as a proposal but not a witnessed, certain origin. Keep this certainty qualification MINOR and list at tier C. It duplicates X24, and it is not in X7's always-weak sentence.
- WRONG | X32: "inherited intact from Proto-Indo-European" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Classes 1 to 6, places the IV/V past-plural long vowel within Germanic; data.mjs EDGES already records that innovation. This contradicts intact inheritance. Shared error: ablaut-inherited-intact.
- WRONG | X33: "past · o-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; git show f5e5f84f34:research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs | Fixer re-read: Germanic strong verb, Modern English Class 3, distinguishes pasts based on old singular and plural forms; the local bind note identifies bound with zero-grade. The positional color legend did not allow this exception. Shared error: past-legend-universal-o-grade.
- WRONG | X34: "participle · zero-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; git show f5e5f84f34:research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs | Fixer re-read: The Class V account gives an e-grade participle, and the local given row supplies *gebanaz. This contradicts a universal zero-grade participle label. Shared error: participle-legend-universal-zero-grade.
- WRONG | X35: "The other page here that takes a rule every English speaker obeys without being taught it and makes the rule operable." | src/content/strata/a-green-great-dragon.md; scripts/nearby-layers.mjs (read only) | Fixer re-read: The linked layer's markdown says the preference is not a law and gives minority orders. Its incoming relation note supplied the overstatement here. The shared nearby generator gives a layer's own outgoing note precedence. Shared error: adjective-order-universal-rule.
- MINOR | V1: The verifier called its negative 0.5 slope a half-life slope. | research/sing-sang-sung/verify.mjs; https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | The displayed label was wrong: p. 714 gives a regularization-rate slope near -0.5 and a half-life slope near +0.5. The numeric rate check was already correct; only its label changed.
- CONFIRMED | "And why is the song you sing the very same word as sing, just wearing a different vowel?" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-0-2; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "Most English verbs make their past tense the lazy way: bolt -ed on the end (walk → walked)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-1-1; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "A few hundred do something stranger and far older \u2014 they change the vowel in the middle of the word. sing · sang · sung. drive · drove · driven." | https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/engol/20; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-1-2; E001. UT Austin's Old English Online lesson says "Modern English includes a few hundred strong verbs" and illustrates rise/rose/risen and sing/sang/sung. N1's introduction excerpt does not establish this count. This is a broad pedagogical count, not a census of unprefixed inherited roots.
- CONFIRMED | "Here it is, made runnable: a wall of verbs caught changing from the inside, the seven shelves the strong verbs sort onto, the o-grade hiding inside everyday nouns \u2014 and the slow, measured tide that keeps dragging these verbs back toward -ed." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | prose-1-4; E001. The strong-verb reference supplies the classes and decline; Lieberman's abstract says "tracking inflectional changes to 177 Old-English irregular verbs". N1's chosen introductory excerpt alone does not cover all these clauses.
- CONFIRMED | "The strong verbs aren't a junk drawer of exceptions." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-3-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The vowels shown are the reconstructed Proto-Germanic pattern (the asterisk marks reconstructions)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-4-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The shelf is about the deep pattern, not the modern spelling." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-4-3; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The same vowel-swap that turns sing into sang also turns the verb sing into the noun song \u2014 song is literally the o-grade of sing, frozen into a naming word thousands of years ago." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | prose-5-2; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Strong verbs are a closed, shrinking club." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-6-1; E006. "practically all new verbs were weak" and "The reverse phenomenon, whereby a weak verb becomes strong by analogy, is rare."
- CONFIRMED | "No new verb ever joins by birth \u2014 google, text, photoshop all went straight to -ed." | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | prose-6-2; E006. The primary paper says "New verbs entering English universally obey the regular conjugation (google/googled/googled)". Read the page's by-birth restriction together with its separately stated later analogy exceptions.
- CONFIRMED | "One careful study put real numbers on the leak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | prose-6-4; E006. The strong-verb reference supplies the classes and decline; Lieberman's abstract says "tracking inflectional changes to 177 Old-English irregular verbs". N1's chosen introductory excerpt alone does not cover all these clauses.
- CONFIRMED | "The tide isn't quite one-way." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-9-1; E006. "practically all new verbs were weak" and "The reverse phenomenon, whereby a weak verb becomes strong by analogy, is rare."
- CONFIRMED | "(How faint: each of these is contested or regional, and none is a new class.)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-9-3; E006. "practically all new verbs were weak" and "The reverse phenomenon, whereby a weak verb becomes strong by analogy, is rare."
- CONFIRMED | "A strong verb marks its past with a vowel change and no suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-10-2; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "A weak verb \u2014 even a wildly irregular one like brought or kept \u2014 always hides a dental suffix, a -t or -d, however much the vowel also moved." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-10-3; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "Find the -t/-d and you've found a weak verb in disguise." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | prose-10-4; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "climb was clomb" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/climb | old-climb; E007. The dictionary lists "simple past climbed or (archaic) clomb" and traces the verb to Old English climban.
- CONFIRMED | "sing·sang·sung to sing Class III ablaut grades: present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u Proto-Germanic: *singwaną · *sangw · *sungun · *sunganaz · PIE root *sengʷʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/singwan%C4%85 | wall-sing-forms; E010. "Conjugation of *singwaną (strong class 3)"; "*sangw", "*sungun", "*sunganaz" and PIE "*sengʷʰ-" all match.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-sing-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "Proto-Germanic *sangwaz, 'an o-grade nominal' \u2014 the verb wearing its past-tense vowel as a name." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | wall-sing-noun-1; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary *singwaną, *sangwaz; PIE *sengʷʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/singwan%C4%85 | wall-sing-citation; E010. "Conjugation of *singwaną (strong class 3)"; "*sangw", "*sungun", "*sunganaz" and PIE "*sengʷʰ-" all match.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade (ei→ī) · past-sg o-grade (oi→ai) · participle zero-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-ride-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English rād < Proto-Germanic *raidō, 'an o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną'." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D | wall-ride-noun-1; E013. "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the noun means "ride, journey". The descendant list includes Old English rād and English road.
- CONFIRMED | "A road is a riding." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D | wall-ride-noun-2; E013. "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the noun means "ride, journey". The descendant list includes Old English rād and English road.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary *raidō, road; etymonline road" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/r%C4%ABdan%C4%85 | wall-ride-citation; E012. "Conjugation of *rīdaną (strong class 1)"; "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" match. The current etymology writes the PIE root as "*Hreydʰ-".
- CONFIRMED | "drink·drank·drunk to drink Class III ablaut grades: present e-grade → i (before nasal) · past-sg → a · participle → u Proto-Germanic: *drinkaną · *drank · *drunkun · *drunkanaz · PIE root (no secure PIE root)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/drinkan%C4%85 | wall-drink-forms; E014. "Conjugation of *drinkaną (strong class 3)"; "*drank", "*drunkun", "*drunkanaz" match. The proposed PIE etymology starts "Possibly", so the page's lack of a secure root is fair.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade → i (before nasal) · past-sg → a · participle → u" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-drink-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary *drinkaną \u2014 the same shelf as sing: i · a · u" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/drinkan%C4%85 | wall-drink-citation; E014. "Conjugation of *drinkaną (strong class 3)"; "*drank", "*drunkun", "*drunkanaz" match. The proposed PIE etymology starts "Possibly", so the page's lack of a secure root is fair.
- CONFIRMED | "bind·bound·bound to bind Class III ablaut grades: present e-grade → i (before nasal) · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u Proto-Germanic: *bindaną · *band · *bundun · *bundanaz · PIE root *bʰendʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/bindan%C4%85 | wall-bind-forms; E015. "Conjugation of *bindaną (strong class 3)"; "*band", "*bundun", "*bundanaz" and "*bʰendʰ-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade → i (before nasal) · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-bind-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "band and bond are the o-grade of bind; bundle (and the leveled past bound) the zero-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-bind-noun-1; E016. Read all three entries: band/bond have *band- and bundle has *bund-. The strong-verb article explicitly derives bound from the older plural pattern. N1's bond excerpt alone does not support bundle or bound. The modern three-vowel illustration is bind/bond/bundle.
- CONFIRMED | "One root, three everyday words." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-bind-noun-2; E016. Read all three entries: band/bond have *band- and bundle has *bund-. The strong-verb article explicitly derives bound from the older plural pattern. N1's bond excerpt alone does not support bundle or bound. The modern three-vowel illustration is bind/bond/bundle.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary band, bond, bundle; PIE *bʰendʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/bindan%C4%85 | wall-bind-citation; E015. "Conjugation of *bindaną (strong class 3)"; "*band", "*bundun", "*bundanaz" and "*bʰendʰ-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "bear·bore·borne to bear, carry Class IV ablaut grades: present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u Proto-Germanic: *beraną · *bar · *bērun · *buranaz · PIE root *bʰer-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/beran%C4%85 | wall-bear-forms; E017. "Conjugation of *beraną (strong class 4)"; "*bar", "*bērun", "*buranaz" and "*bʰer-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle zero-grade → u" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-bear-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "a burden is what is borne (Old English byrðen, the -ur- from a syllabic *r̥)." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden | wall-bear-noun-1; E018. "from Proto-Germanic *burþį̄" and "*bʰer-" support the burden/bear relationship. Germanic ur is the stated reflex of a syllabic r in the zero grade; thorn/eth variants do not change this analysis.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary bear, burden, bairn; PIE *bʰer-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/beran%C4%85 | wall-bear-citation; E017. "Conjugation of *beraną (strong class 4)"; "*bar", "*bērun", "*buranaz" and "*bʰer-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade · past-sg o-grade · participle zero-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-drive-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "drift is the zero-grade of drive (Proto-Germanic *driftiz = drive + the action-suffix -ti-); a drove is the o-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drift; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drove | wall-drive-noun-1; E019. Drift has "*driftiz" and drove has "*draibō". Together they support the zero-grade and o-grade contrast; a single drift excerpt does not support the drove clause.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary drift, drove; PIE *dʰreybʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/dr%C4%ABban%C4%85 | wall-drive-citation; E004. "Conjugation of *drībaną (strong class 1)"; PIE "*dʰreybʰ-". Its past singular is "*draib", plural "*dribun", participle "*dribanaz".
- CONFIRMED | "give·gave·given to give Class V ablaut grades: present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle keeps the e-grade Proto-Germanic: *gebaną · *gab · *gēbun · *gebanaz · PIE root *gʰebʰ-" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/geban%C4%85 | wall-give-forms; E020. "Conjugation of *gebaną (strong class 5)"; "*gab", "*gēbun", "*gebanaz" and "*gʰebʰ-" match. The e-grade is in the root geb-, not the English suffix -en.
- CONFIRMED | "present e-grade · past-sg o-grade → a · participle keeps the e-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | wall-give-grades; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "Brought hides a dental -t (Old English brōhte, Proto-Germanic *branht-)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | wall-bring-1; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "The vowel did move, but the -t is the weak past marker \u2014 this is the 'rückumlaut' type (think→thought, buy→bought, seek→sought)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | wall-bring-2; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "A true strong verb never takes that -t." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | wall-bring-3; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, Germanic weak verb; etymonline thought, bring" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | wall-bring-citation; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "Kept is weak too: a long present vowel shortened before the same dental suffix -t (Old English cēpte). cf. sleep→slept, feel→felt, leave→left, mean→meant." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | wall-keep-1; E022. "Some weak verbs with long vowels in their present tense stems (such as keep) took a short vowel in the past tense and past participle (kept)." The suffix and devoicing examples match.
- CONFIRMED | "The tell is always that final -t/-d." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | wall-keep-2; E022. "Some weak verbs with long vowels in their present tense stems (such as keep) took a short vowel in the past tense and past participle (kept)." The suffix and devoicing examples match.
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, English irregular verbs; etymonline keep" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | wall-keep-citation; E022. "Some weak verbs with long vowels in their present tense stems (such as keep) took a short vowel in the past tense and past participle (kept)." The suffix and devoicing examples match.
- CONFIRMED | "I root vowel + a y/i glide ī present·ai past sg.·i past pl.·i participle e.g. *rīdaną · *raid · *ridun · *ridanaz \u2014 to ride The clean case: present e-grade (ei→ī), past-sg o-grade (oi→ai), past-pl and participle zero-grade (i). The whole e/o/zero story holds here without a wrinkle. drive / drove / driven ride / rode / ridden write / wrote / written rise / rose / risen bite / bit / bitten The Great Vowel Shift later pulled these vowels apart, so the modern spelling hides the old tidy ī–ai–i." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-I-panel; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "The clean case: present e-grade (ei→ī), past-sg o-grade (oi→ai), past-pl and participle zero-grade (i)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-I-grade-1; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "The whole e/o/zero story holds here without a wrinkle." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-I-grade-2; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "The Great Vowel Shift later pulled these vowels apart, so the modern spelling hides the old tidy ī–ai–i." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-I-note-1; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "drive / drove / driven" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-I-modern-1; E023. The strong-verb article lists drive in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "drive – drove – driven". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "ride / rode / ridden" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-I-modern-2; E023. The strong-verb article lists ride in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "ride – rid/rode – ridden". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "write / wrote / written" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-I-modern-3; E023. The strong-verb article lists write in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "write – wrote – written". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "rise / rose / risen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-I-modern-4; E023. The strong-verb article lists rise in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "rise – rose – risen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "bite / bit / bitten" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-I-modern-5; E023. The strong-verb article lists bite in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "bite – bit – bitten". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*rīdaną · *raid · *ridun · *ridanaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/r%C4%ABdan%C4%85 | class-I-exemplar; E012. "Conjugation of *rīdaną (strong class 1)"; "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" match. The current etymology writes the PIE root as "*Hreydʰ-".
- CONFIRMED | "II root vowel + a w/u glide eu present·au past sg.·u past pl.·u participle e.g. *keusaną · *kaus · *kuzun · *kuzanaz \u2014 to choose The same e/o/zero shape as Class I, one glide over (eu/ou/u). The s~z you see in *kaus vs *kuzun is a different law \u2014 Verner's \u2014 acting on the consonant, not the vowel. choose / chose / chosen freeze / froze / frozen fly / flew / flown cleave / clove / cloven 'shoot' and 'lose' began on this shelf but were heavily remodelled \u2014 'lose' is now effectively weak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-II-panel; E024. The source gives eu/au/u/u for II and includes "choose, cleave, fly, freeze and shoot". Verner's law explains s/z; lose is listed as originally strong and now weak in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "The same e/o/zero shape as Class I, one glide over (eu/ou/u)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-II-grade-1; E024. The source gives eu/au/u/u for II and includes "choose, cleave, fly, freeze and shoot". Verner's law explains s/z; lose is listed as originally strong and now weak in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "The s~z you see in *kaus vs *kuzun is a different law \u2014 Verner's \u2014 acting on the consonant, not the vowel." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-II-grade-2; E024. The source gives eu/au/u/u for II and includes "choose, cleave, fly, freeze and shoot". Verner's law explains s/z; lose is listed as originally strong and now weak in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "'shoot' and 'lose' began on this shelf but were heavily remodelled \u2014 'lose' is now effectively weak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-II-note-1; E024. The source gives eu/au/u/u for II and includes "choose, cleave, fly, freeze and shoot". Verner's law explains s/z; lose is listed as originally strong and now weak in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "choose / chose / chosen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-II-modern-1; E024. The strong-verb article lists choose in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "choose – chose – chosen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "freeze / froze / frozen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-II-modern-2; E024. The strong-verb article lists freeze in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "freeze – froze – frozen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "fly / flew / flown" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-II-modern-3; E024. The strong-verb article lists fly in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "fly – flew – flown [the form flied is common in the baseball sense]". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "cleave / clove / cloven" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-II-modern-4; E024. The strong-verb article lists cleave in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "cleave – clove/cleft – cloven/cleft [but regular when meaning \"adhere\"]". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*keusaną · *kaus · *kuzun · *kuzanaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/keusan%C4%85 | class-II-exemplar; E025. "Conjugation of *keusaną (strong class 2)" has "*kaus", "*kuzun", "*kuzanaz".
- CONFIRMED | "III root vowel + a nasal or liquid + another consonant i / e present·a past sg.·u past pl.·u participle e.g. *bindaną · *band · *bundun · *bundanaz \u2014 to bind The home of sing/sang/sung. Present e-grade \u2014 but raised to i before a nasal+consonant; past-sg o-grade → a; participle zero-grade, which before a sonorant takes an inserted u. (e→a→u: sing, sang, sung.) sing / sang / sung drink / drank / drunk begin / began / begun swim / swam / swum find / found / found The e→i-before-nasal rule splits the class: nasal stems show i (sing, bind), liquid stems keep e \u2014 'help' was once help / holp / holpen before it went weak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-III-panel; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "The home of sing/sang/sung." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-III-grade-1; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "Present e-grade \u2014 but raised to i before a nasal+consonant; past-sg o-grade → a; participle zero-grade, which before a sonorant takes an inserted u." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-III-grade-2; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "(e→a→u: sing, sang, sung.)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-III-grade-3; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "The e→i-before-nasal rule splits the class: nasal stems show i (sing, bind), liquid stems keep e \u2014 'help' was once help / holp / holpen before it went weak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-III-note-1; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "sing / sang / sung" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-III-modern-1; E026. The strong-verb article lists sing in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "sing – sang – sung". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "drink / drank / drunk" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-III-modern-2; E026. The strong-verb article lists drink in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "drink – drank – drunk". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "begin / began / begun" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-III-modern-3; E026. The strong-verb article lists begin in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "begin – began – begun". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "swim / swam / swum" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-III-modern-4; E026. The strong-verb article lists swim in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "swim – swam – swum". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "find / found / found" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-III-modern-5; E026. The strong-verb article lists find in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "find – found – found". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*bindaną · *band · *bundun · *bundanaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/bindan%C4%85 | class-III-exemplar; E015. "Conjugation of *bindaną (strong class 3)"; "*band", "*bundun", "*bundanaz" and "*bʰendʰ-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "IV root vowel + a single l, r, m or n (nothing after) e present·a past sg.·ē past pl.·u participle e.g. *beraną · *bar · *bērun · *buranaz \u2014 to bear, carry Present e-grade, past-sg o-grade → a, participle zero-grade → u. But the long ē of the past plural is NOT an inherited PIE lengthened grade \u2014 it arose inside Germanic. bear / bore / borne steal / stole / stolen break / broke / broken come / came / come This shelf's frozen nouns are scattered through everyday English: bairn, burden, birth, barrow, bier \u2014 all 'things borne'." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/birth; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bier; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-IV-panel; E027. All five nouns trace to the bear root; birth explicitly derives from *bʰŕ̥tis, burden from *burþį̄, barrow from *barwǭ, bier from *bērō, and bairn from *barną. The loose "things borne" description is the shared carrying/bearing family, not a claim that all have the same grade.
- CONFIRMED | "Present e-grade, past-sg o-grade → a, participle zero-grade → u." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-IV-grade-1; E027. The source gives e/a/ē/u for IV, says ē "arose in Germanic", and lists bear, steal, break and come. The bear-derived nouns were also checked individually.
- CONFIRMED | "But the long ē of the past plural is NOT an inherited PIE lengthened grade \u2014 it arose inside Germanic." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-IV-grade-2; E027. The source gives e/a/ē/u for IV, says ē "arose in Germanic", and lists bear, steal, break and come. The bear-derived nouns were also checked individually.
- CONFIRMED | "This shelf's frozen nouns are scattered through everyday English: bairn, burden, birth, barrow, bier \u2014 all 'things borne'." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/birth; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bier; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-IV-note-1; E027. All five nouns trace to the bear root; birth explicitly derives from *bʰŕ̥tis, burden from *burþį̄, barrow from *barwǭ, bier from *bērō, and bairn from *barną. The loose "things borne" description is the shared carrying/bearing family, not a claim that all have the same grade.
- CONFIRMED | "bear / bore / borne" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-IV-modern-1; E027. The strong-verb article lists bear in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "bear – bore – borne [spelt born in passive and adjectival uses relating to birth]". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "steal / stole / stolen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-IV-modern-2; E027. The strong-verb article lists steal in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "steal – stole – stolen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "break / broke / broken" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-IV-modern-3; E027. The strong-verb article lists break in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "break – broke – broken". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "come / came / come" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-IV-modern-4; E027. The strong-verb article lists come in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "come – came – come". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*beraną · *bar · *bērun · *buranaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/beran%C4%85 | class-IV-exemplar; E017. "Conjugation of *beraną (strong class 4)"; "*bar", "*bērun", "*buranaz" and "*bʰer-" match.
- CONFIRMED | "The long-ē past plural is, again, a Germanic innovation, not PIE." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-V-grade-2; E028. The source gives e/a/ē/e for V, lists give/eat/see/sit, and says "Get, speak, tread, and weave, which come from Class 5 verbs, are now Class 4."
- CONFIRMED | "give / gave / given" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-V-modern-1; E028. The strong-verb article lists give in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "give – gave – given". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "eat / ate / eaten" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-V-modern-2; E028. The strong-verb article lists eat in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "eat – ate – eaten". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "see / saw / seen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-V-modern-3; E028. The strong-verb article lists see in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "see – saw – seen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "sit / sat / sat" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-V-modern-4; E028. The strong-verb article lists sit in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "sit – sat – sat". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "speak / spoke / spoken" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-V-modern-5; E028. The modern-form table gives "speak", "spoke" and "spoken". These forms are correct. The strong-verb reference identifies historical Class V and a later move into IV; the reversed migration description is separately marked WRONG on class-V-panel and class-V-note-1.
- CONFIRMED | "*gebaną · *gab · *gēbun · *gebanaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/geban%C4%85 | class-V-exemplar; E020. "Conjugation of *gebaną (strong class 5)"; "*gab", "*gēbun", "*gebanaz" and "*gʰebʰ-" match. The e-grade is in the root geb-, not the English suffix -en.
- CONFIRMED | "VI a root with PIE *a or *o \u2014 the odd one out a present·ō past sg.·ō past pl.·a participle e.g. *faraną · *fōr · *fōrun · *faranaz \u2014 to fare, travel The clearest break from e/o/zero. Exactly where the ō comes from is genuinely unsettled \u2014 proposals include laryngeal o-grades and a collapsed reduplicating syllable. We show the pattern and name the uncertainty. shake / shook / shaken take / took / taken draw / drew / drawn slay / slew / slain stand / stood / stood 'draw' and 'slay' look weak-ish today but are solid Class VI (Proto-Germanic *draganą, *slahaną)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VI-panel; E029. "It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived"; the source gives a/ō/ō/a and lists shake, take, draw, slay and stand. Laryngeal and reduplication proposals are presented as proposals.
- CONFIRMED | "The clearest break from e/o/zero." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VI-grade-1; E029. "It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived"; the source gives a/ō/ō/a and lists shake, take, draw, slay and stand. Laryngeal and reduplication proposals are presented as proposals.
- CONFIRMED | "Exactly where the ō comes from is genuinely unsettled \u2014 proposals include laryngeal o-grades and a collapsed reduplicating syllable." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VI-grade-2; E029. "It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived"; the source gives a/ō/ō/a and lists shake, take, draw, slay and stand. Laryngeal and reduplication proposals are presented as proposals.
- CONFIRMED | "We show the pattern and name the uncertainty." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VI-grade-3; E029. "It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived"; the source gives a/ō/ō/a and lists shake, take, draw, slay and stand. Laryngeal and reduplication proposals are presented as proposals.
- CONFIRMED | "'draw' and 'slay' look weak-ish today but are solid Class VI (Proto-Germanic *draganą, *slahaną)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VI-note-1; E029. "It is not clear exactly how the ō is to be derived"; the source gives a/ō/ō/a and lists shake, take, draw, slay and stand. Laryngeal and reduplication proposals are presented as proposals.
- CONFIRMED | "shake / shook / shaken" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VI-modern-1; E029. The strong-verb article lists shake in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "shake – shook – shaken/shook". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "take / took / taken" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VI-modern-2; E029. The strong-verb article lists take in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "take – took – taken". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "draw / drew / drawn" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VI-modern-3; E029. The strong-verb article lists draw in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "draw – drew – drawn". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "slay / slew / slain" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VI-modern-4; E029. The strong-verb article lists slay in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "slay – slew/slayed – slain/slayed". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "stand / stood / stood" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VI-modern-5; E029. The strong-verb article lists stand in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "stand – stood – stood". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*faraną · *fōr · *fōrun · *faranaz" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/faran%C4%85 | class-VI-exemplar; E030. "Conjugation of *faraną (strong class 6)" has "*fōr", "*fōrun", "*faranaz".
- CONFIRMED | "VII the leftovers \u2014 long vowels & diphthongs that reduplicated \u2014 present·\u2014 past sg.·\u2014 past pl.·\u2014 participle e.g. *haitaną · *hehait- (Gothic haíhait 'called') \u2014 to be called Class VII isn't defined by ablaut at all. In Proto-Germanic it built its past by REDUPLICATION \u2014 copying the first consonant, exactly like the Greek and Latin perfect (Gothic still shows haíhait). Northwest Germanic later crushed the doubled syllable into a long vowel, which is why English shows hold/held, fall/fell. hold / held / held fall / fell / fallen blow / blew / blown know / knew / known throw / threw / thrown 'let' and 'beat' are leveled Class VII verbs \u2014 they look invariant (let/let/let) but they are strong, not weak: the tell is they hide no dental suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VII-panel; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "Class VII isn't defined by ablaut at all." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VII-grade-1; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "In Proto-Germanic it built its past by REDUPLICATION \u2014 copying the first consonant, exactly like the Greek and Latin perfect (Gothic still shows haíhait)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VII-grade-2; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "Northwest Germanic later crushed the doubled syllable into a long vowel, which is why English shows hold/held, fall/fell." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VII-grade-3; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "'let' and 'beat' are leveled Class VII verbs \u2014 they look invariant (let/let/let) but they are strong, not weak: the tell is they hide no dental suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | class-VII-note-1; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "hold / held / held" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VII-modern-1; E031. The strong-verb article lists hold in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "hold – held – held". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "fall / fell / fallen" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VII-modern-2; E031. The strong-verb article lists fall in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "fall – fell – fallen". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "blow / blew / blown" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VII-modern-3; E031. The strong-verb article lists blow in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "blow – blew – blown". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "know / knew / known" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VII-modern-4; E031. The strong-verb article lists know in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "know – knew – known". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "throw / threw / thrown" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | class-VII-modern-5; E031. The strong-verb article lists throw in the indicated class. The modern-form table reads "throw – threw – thrown". Alternative forms in that table do not invalidate the displayed standard option.
- CONFIRMED | "*haitaną · *hehait- (Gothic haíhait 'called')" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/haitan%C4%85 | class-VII-exemplar; E032. "Conjugation of *haitaną (strong class 7a)" has "*hehait". The Gothic haíhait illustration agrees with the strong-verb reference.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary *sangwaz, sing" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | frozen-sing-citation; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English rād < *raidō, 'an o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną.' (raid is the very same word, revived from Scots by Walter Scott.)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/raid | frozen-ride-1; E013. The reconstruction says "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the separate raid entry names Walter Scott and the Scots revival. The offline quote-road warning is caused by the omitted parenthetic gloss before the source's period; the quoted lexical phrase is genuine.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary *raidō, road, raid" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/raid | frozen-ride-citation; E013. The reconstruction says "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the separate raid entry names Walter Scott and the Scots revival. The offline quote-road warning is caused by the omitted parenthetic gloss before the source's period; the quoted lexical phrase is genuine.
- CONFIRMED | "band and bond are the o-grade of bind (PIE *bʰendʰ-); bundle and the past 'bound' are its zero-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | frozen-bind-1; E016. Read all three entries: band/bond have *band- and bundle has *bund-. The strong-verb article explicitly derives bound from the older plural pattern. N1's bond excerpt alone does not support bundle or bound. The modern three-vowel illustration is bind/bond/bundle.
- CONFIRMED | "Three vowels of one root, three words." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | frozen-bind-2; E016. Read all three entries: band/bond have *band- and bundle has *bund-. The strong-verb article explicitly derives bound from the older plural pattern. N1's bond excerpt alone does not support bundle or bound. The modern three-vowel illustration is bind/bond/bundle.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary band, bond, bundle" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | frozen-bind-citation; E016. Read all three entries: band/bond have *band- and bundle has *bund-. The strong-verb article explicitly derives bound from the older plural pattern. N1's bond excerpt alone does not support bundle or bound. The modern three-vowel illustration is bind/bond/bundle.
- CONFIRMED | "drift = drive + the action-suffix -ti- on the zero-grade root (*driftiz); a drove (a herd) is the o-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drift; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drove | frozen-drive-1; E019. Drift has "*driftiz" and drove has "*draibō". Together they support the zero-grade and o-grade contrast; a single drift excerpt does not support the drove clause.
- CONFIRMED | "The snow drifts where the herd was drove." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drift | frozen-drive-2; E019. "from Proto-Germanic *driftiz" and "Equivalent to drive + -t" support the zero-grade action noun; the separate drove entry supplies *draibō.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary drift, drove" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drift; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drove | frozen-drive-citation; E019. Drift has "*driftiz" and drove has "*draibō". Together they support the zero-grade and o-grade contrast; a single drift excerpt does not support the drove clause.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English bita < *bitô, the short -i- against the verb's long ī (PIE *bʰeyd- 'to split') \u2014 the zero-grade frozen into 'a little bit.'" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bit | frozen-bite-1; E033. "Old English bita" and "Proto-Germanic *bitô and *bitiz" support the short-i zero-grade noun from the *bʰeyd- root.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary bit; etymonline bit" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bit | frozen-bite-citation; E033. "Old English bita" and "Proto-Germanic *bitô and *bitiz" support the short-i zero-grade noun from the *bʰeyd- root.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English byrðen, the -ur- from a syllabic *r̥ \u2014 the zero-grade of bear." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden | frozen-bear-1; E018. "from Proto-Germanic *burþį̄" and "*bʰer-" support the burden/bear relationship. Germanic ur is the stated reflex of a syllabic r in the zero grade; thorn/eth variants do not change this analysis.
- CONFIRMED | "The o-grade gives bairn (one who is borne) and barrow (a thing to carry on)." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow | frozen-bear-2; E018. The separate entries give "*barną" and "*barwǭ, *barwijǭ", and connect barrow to *beraną. The a-vowels support the stated o-grade inference; N1's burden excerpt alone cannot establish these other nouns.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary burden, bairn, barrow" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow | frozen-bear-citation; E018. The separate entries give "*barną" and "*barwǭ, *barwijǭ", and connect barrow to *beraną. The a-vowels support the stated o-grade inference; N1's burden excerpt alone cannot establish these other nouns.
- CONFIRMED | "bundle and the past 'bound' are its zero-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bundle | lexical-bundle; E034. "both from Proto-Germanic *bundil-, derivative of *bundą" supports bundle's u-grade. The strong-verb article explains the old plural/participle origin of bound.
- CONFIRMED | "band and bond are the o-grade of bind" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/band | lexical-band; E035. "from Proto-Germanic *bandą, *bandiz" and "Related to bond, bind, bend" support band/bond as the o-grade nouns.
- CONFIRMED | "a drove (a herd) is the o-grade." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drove | lexical-drove; E036. "Old English drāf" and "Proto-Germanic *draibō" support the o-grade noun drove; the definition includes "drove, herd".
- CONFIRMED | "The o-grade gives bairn (one who is borne) and barrow (a thing to carry on)." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow | lexical-barrow; E038. The separate entries give "*barną" and "*barwǭ, *barwijǭ", and connect barrow to *beraną. The a-vowels support the stated o-grade inference; N1's burden excerpt alone cannot establish these other nouns.
- CONFIRMED | "The o-grade gives bairn (one who is borne)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow | lexical-bairn; E039. The separate entries give "*barną" and "*barwǭ, *barwijǭ", and connect barrow to *beraną. The a-vowels support the stated o-grade inference; N1's burden excerpt alone cannot establish these other nouns.
- CONFIRMED | "raid is the very same word, revived from Scots by Walter Scott." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/raid | lexical-raid; E040. "were revived in the northern form raid by Walter Scott in the early 19th century"; both raid and road trace to Old English rād.
- CONFIRMED | "Proto-Germanic *sangwaz, 'an o-grade nominal'" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | quote-song-short; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English rād < *raidō, 'an o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną.' (raid is the very same word, revived from Scots by Walter Scott.)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/raid | quote-road; E013. The reconstruction says "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the separate raid entry names Walter Scott and the Scots revival. The offline quote-road warning is caused by the omitted parenthetic gloss before the source's period; the quoted lexical phrase is genuine.
- CONFIRMED | "177 Old English irregular verbs Lieberman et al. tracked across 1,200 years Nature, 2007" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | drift-cell-1; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "145 still irregular by Middle English (≈ Chaucer) of the 177" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | drift-cell-2; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "98 still irregular today \u2014 about 55% survive of the 177" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | drift-cell-3; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "0 new strong verbs born by birth since: every newcomer takes -ed (googled, texted) a closed class" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | drift-cell-4; E006. The primary paper says "New verbs entering English universally obey the regular conjugation (google/googled/googled)". Read the page's by-birth restriction together with its separately stated later analogy exceptions.
- CONFIRMED | "Erez Lieberman and colleagues (Nature, 2007) tracked 177 Old English irregular verbs across twelve centuries: 145 were still irregular by Middle English, and 98 survive as irregulars today." | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | drift-body-1; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "wed, at 4.2 uses per million" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | wed-frequency; E042. The number matches "4.2 uses per million verbs". Read in this verb-frequency context; explicitly adding verbs would make the denominator clearer.
- CONFIRMED | "The rare end regularizes within centuries; the common end would outlast the language." | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | drift-frequency-2; E044. On p. 714 the paper separates the date-independent relative rate from estimated absolute half-lives, and calls the square-root fit approximate.
- CONFIRMED | "(These absolute half-lives lean on the contested dating of Old and Middle English; the relative law \u2014 regularization rate ∝ 1/√frequency \u2014 does not.)" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | drift-frequency-3; E044. On p. 714 the paper separates the date-independent relative rate from estimated absolute half-lives, and calls the square-root fit approximate.
- CONFIRMED | "~300-yr half-life · next to fall" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | frequency-tick-1; E046. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes.
- CONFIRMED | "~700 yr 72% of the bin already regular" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | frequency-tick-2; E046. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes.
- CONFIRMED | "~2,000 yr 43% already regular" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | frequency-tick-3; E046. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes.
- CONFIRMED | "~14,400-yr half-life · 0% gone" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | frequency-tick-4; E046. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes.
- CONFIRMED | "~38,800-yr half-life · immortal" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | frequency-tick-5; E046. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes.
- CONFIRMED | "19th c. · N. America" | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove | analogy-dove-date; E048. Etymonline says "The change began to be noted in the late 1850s by Canadian and U.S. editors". Read through the web fetch after curl returned 403.
- CONFIRMED | "a dialectal newcomer turned standard \u2014 but its model is genuinely unknown; Merriam-Webster notes no common verb fits the pattern (leak isn't 'luck'), so the usual stick→stuck story is a guess, not a fact." | https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/snuck-or-sneaked-which-is-correct | analogy-snuck-1; E049. Merriam-Webster says "No common verb follows the precise pattern of snuck" and treats both sneaked and snuck as standard; this supports the stated uncertainty.
- CONFIRMED | "late 1800s · US" | https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/snuck-or-sneaked-which-is-correct | analogy-snuck-date; E050. Merriam-Webster says "in the late 1800s, the form snuck started showing up in the United States."
- CONFIRMED | "(The deep root of 'drag' WAS strong \u2014 it is the ancestor of 'draw' \u2014 but modern 'drag' is weak, so 'drug' is a fresh invention, not a survival.)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drag; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | analogy-drug-2; E051. Drag traces to strong *draganą, while the modern dictionary gives dragged and lists drug as "dialectal, chiefly US". That supports the modern innovation and regional label; the drag etymology excerpt alone does not document the label.
- CONFIRMED | "dialectal · US" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drag; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | analogy-drug-date; E051. Drag traces to strong *draganą, while the modern dictionary gives dragged and lists drug as "dialectal, chiefly US". That supports the modern innovation and regional label; the drag etymology excerpt alone does not document the label.
- CONFIRMED | "sing→sang: a vowel change with no suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-sang-1; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "A textbook Class III strong past." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-sang-2; E026. The source specifies the nasal conditioning of e > i, a past singular, and u in the other past parts; its Class III list includes all the page's examples.
- CONFIRMED | "the vowel moved, but that final -t is a dental suffix \u2014 'brought' is weak (the rückumlaut type, like think→thought)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | quiz-brought-1; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "ride→rode: pure vowel change, no -t/-d." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-rode-1; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "Class I strong." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-rode-2; E023. Class I has "*rīdaną", "*raid", "*ridun", "*ridanaz" and includes drive, ride, write, rise and bite. The modern paradigms were cross-checked in English irregular verbs.
- CONFIRMED | "weak: a shortened vowel plus the dental -t (keep→kept, like sleep→slept)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | quiz-kept-1; E022. "Some weak verbs with long vowels in their present tense stems (such as keep) took a short vowel in the past tense and past participle (kept)." The suffix and devoicing examples match.
- CONFIRMED | "throw→threw: vowel change, no suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-threw-1; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "Class VII, the old reduplicating class." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-threw-2; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "sit→sat: vowel change, no dental suffix." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-sat-1; E028. The source gives e/a/ē/e for V, lists give/eat/see/sit, and says "Get, speak, tread, and weave, which come from Class 5 verbs, are now Class 4."
- CONFIRMED | "Class V strong, with past and participle leveled together." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-sat-2; E028. The source gives e/a/ē/e for V, lists give/eat/see/sit, and says "Get, speak, tread, and weave, which come from Class 5 verbs, are now Class 4."
- CONFIRMED | "weak: 'made' is a worn-down 'maked' \u2014 the -d is the regular dental suffix, just contracted." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | quiz-made-1; E053. The weak-verb section lists "have–has–had, make–made, say–says–said" under "additional contractions and shortenings".
- CONFIRMED | "(So are 'had' and 'said'.)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | quiz-made-2; E053. The weak-verb section lists "have–has–had, make–made, say–says–said" under "additional contractions and shortenings".
- CONFIRMED | "weak, believe it or not: a dental-suffix verb whose stem already ended in -t, so the suffix vanished into it. cf. put, hit, set." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | quiz-cut-1; E054. Under weak verbs, the source explains coalescence with a stem-final dental and lists "cut", "put", "hit" and "set". Let is discussed separately as leveled strong.
- CONFIRMED | "strong, actually \u2014 Class VII (Proto-Germanic *lētaną), its vowels leveled flat so it looks frozen." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-let-1; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "Unlike 'cut', it hides no dental: a leveled strong verb, not a weak one." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | quiz-let-2; E031. The source says VII "displayed reduplication" and that Northwest Germanic "new ablaut patterns were introduced"; it lists hold, fall, blow, know, throw, beat and let. This is a historical class, not one invariant modern pattern.
- CONFIRMED | "The seven classes are a Germanic-philology scheme, idealized" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-title-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The four 'principal parts' and the tidy vowel tables are Proto-Germanic reconstructions (the asterisk marks them), and real verbs are messier \u2014 leveled, reassigned, or half-weak." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-1-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The shelves are how the field organizes the strong verbs, not a law every verb obeys to the letter." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-1-2; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "'e-grade / o-grade / zero-grade' is clean only sometimes" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-title-2; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "Classes I–III fit the inherited PIE e/o/zero pattern well." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-2-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "But the long vowel in the past plural of Classes IV and V (*bērun, *gēbun) is NOT an inherited PIE lengthened grade \u2014 it grew inside Germanic." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-2-2; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "And Class VI's a~ō alternation has no agreed PIE source at all." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-2-3; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "We show the clean cases and name the messy ones rather than forcing one story." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-2-4; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "The ablaut grade of a noun is usually read off its vowel" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-title-3; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "For bond, drift, bit, burden and the rest, the grade is the standard inference from the Germanic vowel (a = the o-grade reflex; u or i = the zero-grade) \u2014 uncontroversial, but inferred, not always spelled out in the source." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | edge-3-2; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "The counts are approximate and definition-dependent" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | edge-title-4; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "'Old English had ~300 strong verbs and about half survive' is a popularized round figure, not a precise census; the neat 'a third stayed strong, a third went weak, a third died' is a memory aid, not a sourced statistic." | https://alg.manifoldapp.org/read/language-connections-with-the-past-a-history-of-the-english-language/section/b33e0402-eac8-443c-a0dd-4d4b7ca30c60 | edge-4-1; E055. The textbook distinguishes about 300 Old English strong verbs, about 150 surviving words, and about 70 still strong. The page expressly calls the round numbers approximate.
- CONFIRMED | "The one rigorous, reproducible number is Lieberman's: of 177 Old English irregulars that survive as words, 98 are still irregular \u2014 and even that excludes verbs that left the language entirely." | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | edge-4-2; E041. The paper's abstract explicitly gives "177", "145" and "98" and the square-root frequency relationship. Read the full PDF as well as the publisher page.
- CONFIRMED | "Regularization may be drift, not 'selection'" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature24455 | edge-title-5; E056. Newberry's abstract says drift is stronger for rare words and that selection is found in some cases but not others.
- CONFIRMED | "Lieberman's half-life law is a real, quantified pattern, but reading it as verbs being 'selected against' is contested." | https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | edge-5-1; E057. Read p. 224 and Figure 2: "Drift alone is sufficient" for the majority of the analysed verbs; four of six nominally significant cases favor irregularity. Figure 2c explicitly discusses quitted > quit.
- CONFIRMED | "Newberry et al." | https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | edge-5-2; E057. Read p. 224 and Figure 2: "Drift alone is sufficient" for the majority of the analysed verbs; four of six nominally significant cases favor irregularity. Figure 2c explicitly discusses quitted > quit.
- CONFIRMED | "(Nature, 2017) reran the question with a population-genetics model and found most past-tense change is consistent with random drift, not directed selection \u2014 and that change sometimes runs toward MORE irregularity (dove, quit)." | https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | edge-5-3; E057. The source's scope is the majority of the 36 Modern English verbs analysed, not all language change. Figure 2 and p. 224 contain both dove and quit; N1's selected excerpt omits quit but the full paper explicitly discusses "quitted" and "quit".
- CONFIRMED | "The tide is real; its cause is argued." | https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | edge-5-4; E057. Read p. 224 and Figure 2: "Drift alone is sufficient" for the majority of the analysed verbs; four of six nominally significant cases favor irregularity. Figure 2c explicitly discusses quitted > quit.
- CONFIRMED | "Where the -ed suffix itself came from is an old open problem" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | edge-title-6; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "The weak past's dental suffix (-ed/-t/-d) is the productive default \u2014 every new verb takes it \u2014 but its own origin is 'one of the oldest and most controversial problems' in Germanic morphology." | https://www.benjamins.com/catalog/catalog/dia.27.3.02hil; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | edge-6-1; E021. The exact phrase "one of the oldest and most controversial problems" is in Eugen Hill's 2010 abstract, verified against publisher-deposited Crossref metadata and the publisher catalogue. N1 wrongly assigns these quoted words to Wikipedia's shorter "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain." Repair the source record; this is not a fabricated quotation.
- CONFIRMED | "The leading guess is that it fused from the verb 'do' (*dōn), but that is the leading theory, not a settled fact." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | edge-6-2; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "'one of the oldest and most controversial problems'" | https://www.benjamins.com/catalog/catalog/dia.27.3.02hil; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | quote-dental; E058. The exact phrase "one of the oldest and most controversial problems" is in Eugen Hill's 2010 abstract, verified against publisher-deposited Crossref metadata and the publisher catalogue. N1 wrongly assigns these quoted words to Wikipedia's shorter "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain." Repair the source record; this is not a fabricated quotation.
- CONFIRMED | "Jacob Grimm · 1785–1863" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Grimm | grimm-life; E059. "4 January 1785" and "20 September 1863"; the source identifies Wilhelm, the fairy tales, Grimm's law, and the first Grammatik edition in 1819.
- CONFIRMED | "The word ablaut was coined in this sense in 1819 by Jacob Grimm, in his Deutsche Grammatik \u2014 the same Grimm of Grimm's Law (the consonant shift that makes English a Germanic language) and, with his brother Wilhelm, of the fairy tales." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Grimm | grimm-1; E059. "4 January 1785" and "20 September 1863"; the source identifies Wilhelm, the fairy tales, Grimm's law, and the first Grammatik edition in 1819.
- CONFIRMED | "It joins ab- ('away, off, deviating from the norm') to Laut ('sound'): a sound that steps off the expected one." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | grimm-2; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "Grimm gave the field the paired terms ablaut and Umlaut, and the founding habit of treating a thicket of irregular verbs as a system with discoverable laws \u2014 the instinct behind the whole Sound Laws program this page belongs to." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | grimm-3; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "J. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik (1819); Wikipedia, 'Indo-European ablaut' ('coined in this sense in 1819 … though the word had been used before him')." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | grimm-citation; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "J. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik (1819); Wikipedia, 'Indo-European ablaut' ('coined in this sense in 1819 … though the word had been used before him')." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | quote-grimm; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, 'Germanic strong verb' (the seven classes, the PGmc vowel tables, the e→i-before-nasal rule, Class IV/V ē as a Germanic innovation, Class VI's uncertain ō, Class VII reduplication)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | reference-1; E003. "seven coherent classes of strong verbs"; the class table and the phonological explanations support the historical scheme, with separate treatment of Class VII and the innovations in IV-VI.
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, 'Indo-European ablaut' (ablaut → the strong verbs; the term coined by Grimm, 1819)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | reference-2; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, 'Germanic weak verb' (the dental suffix; the rückumlaut type bring/brought; the -ed origin as an open problem)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | reference-3; E021. "*bringaną" with past "*branht-"; the source describes Rückumlaut and states "The origin of the dental suffix is uncertain."
- CONFIRMED | "Wikipedia, 'English irregular verbs' (keep/kept; the cut/put/hit/set assimilated-dental group; let & beat as leveled strong)" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | reference-4; E022. "Some weak verbs with long vowels in their present tense stems (such as keep) took a short vowel in the past tense and past participle (kept)." The suffix and devoicing examples match.
- CONFIRMED | "Lieberman, Michel, Jackson, Tang & Nowak, 'Quantifying the evolutionary dynamics of language,' Nature 449 (2007) \u2014 the 177→145→98 counts and the √-frequency half-life law" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06137 | reference-5; E061. Publisher metadata and the paper's first page give Erez Lieberman, Jean-Baptiste Michel, Joe Jackson, Tina Tang and Martin A. Nowak; Nature 449, 713-716 (2007), DOI 10.1038/nature06137.
- CONFIRMED | "Newberry, Ahern, Clark & Plotkin, 'Detecting evolutionary forces in language change,' Nature 551 (2017) \u2014 the drift-vs-selection caveat" | https://www.nature.com/articles/nature24455; https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | reference-6; E062. Publisher metadata and the PDF give Mitchell G. Newberry, Christopher A. Ahern, Robin Clark and Joshua B. Plotkin; Nature 551, 223-226 (2017), DOI 10.1038/nature24455. The checker misreads middle initials as first initials. The title, year, volume and all four surnames match. A correct middle initial in an excerpt is not an author-name error.
- CONFIRMED | "Wiktionary, Proto-Germanic & PIE reconstructions (*singwaną, *sangwaz, *raidō, *bindaną, *beraną, *gebaną, …)" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | reference-7; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Online Etymology Dictionary (road, drove, bit, burden, dove, sneak, catch, keep)" | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove; https://www.etymonline.com/word/catch; git show f5e5f84f34:research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs | reference-8; E013. The page's Etymonline bibliography is real, and the cited dove/catch entries were read. N1 assigns this bibliography entry to Wiktionary *raidō, which cannot verify a different publisher's source identity. Correct that record URL.
- CONFIRMED | "Merriam-Webster, 'Snuck or Sneaked?' (the contested origin of snuck)" | https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/snuck-or-sneaked-which-is-correct | reference-9; E049. Merriam-Webster says "No common verb follows the precise pattern of snuck" and treats both sneaked and snuck as standard; this supports the stated uncertainty.
- CONFIRMED | "Most English verbs make their past the lazy way: bolt -ed on the end." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | dek-1; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak. Lieberman also reports that less than 3% of modern verbs are irregular.
- CONFIRMED | "A few hundred do something older and stranger: they change the vowel in the middle. sing, sang, sung. drive, drove, driven." | https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/engol/20; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | dek-2; E001. UT Austin's Old English Online lesson says "Modern English includes a few hundred strong verbs" and illustrates rise/rose/risen and sing/sang/sung. N1's introduction excerpt does not establish this count. This is a broad pedagogical count, not a census of unprefixed inherited roots.
- CONFIRMED | "These are the strong verbs, and the vowel-swap isn't English messiness." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | dek-3; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "And here is the quiet astonishment: the very same swap that turns sing into sang also turns the verb sing into the noun song." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz | dek-5; E005. "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form *sóngʷos"; the entry connects *sangwaz to *singwaną. The root relationship is supported, but the current source qualifies the nominal reconstruction.
- CONFIRMED | "Song is literally the o-grade of sing, frozen into a naming word before English existed, and road is the o-grade of ride, a bond the o-grade of bind, a burden the zero-grade of bear." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden | dek-6; E005. The separate lexical entries supply *sangwaz, *raidō, *band- and *burþį̄. Read with the page's explicit reconstruction and inference caveats, these are supported root/grade relationships; the single sangwaz excerpt in N1 does not establish all four.
- CONFIRMED | "The honest edges are on the page: the seven classes are an idealized scheme; the clean e/o/zero story breaks at Classes IV–VI; the long past-plural vowel is a Germanic innovation, not inherited PIE; the counts are popularized approximations; and whether the regularizing tide is selection or mere drift is contested (Newberry et al. 2017)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb; https://langev.com/pdf/feabedf260ebf50f78f909343a492d97bf7aaac3.pdf | dek-8; E003. The class exceptions match the Germanic source, and the drift/selection caveat is supported by Newberry p. 224. N1's one class excerpt does not support the entire compound claim.
- CONFIRMED | "Why English says sing, sang, sung instead of just adding -ed: these are the strong verbs, and the vowel change is ablaut, a system of vowel alternation inherited from Proto-Indo-European." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | plain-1; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "The same swap that makes sang out of sing also made the noun song, road out of ride, and bond out of bind." | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/sangwaz; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden | plain-2; E005. The separate lexical entries supply *sangwaz, *raidō, *band- and *burþį̄. Read with the page's explicit reconstruction and inference caveats, these are supported root/grade relationships; the single sangwaz excerpt in N1 does not establish all four.
- CONFIRMED | "Sort the verbs onto their seven shelves and see which irregular verbs are dissolving fastest." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | plain-3; E001. "A minority of verbs in any Germanic language are strong; the majority are weak verbs"; the introduction gives sing/sang/sung and drive/drove/driven and distinguishes bring/keep as weak.
- CONFIRMED | "Two halves of the same nineteenth-century instinct \u2014 turn a thicket of irregular verbs into a system with laws \u2014 and the same man at the root of both." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | relation-1-1; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "This page runs ablaut, which reorganizes the VOWELS: the strong verbs change their stem vowel because PIE marked grammatical role by vowel grade (e / o / zero), and Germanic repurposed those grades to mark tense \u2014 sing (e-grade), sang (o-grade), sung (zero-grade)." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | relation-1-3; E009. The source describes PIE aspect and its reorganization into Germanic tense and gives the inherited grades. The page itself is not independent evidence for this external linguistic history; use this reference instead.
- CONFIRMED | "Read together they are the two axes along which one ancestral sound system fractured into English." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | relation-1-5; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "Grassmann's law is a single conditioned rule (two breaths can't stand in a row, so the first drops); ablaut is a whole inherited system of vowel alternation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law | relation-2-2; E064. The source describes an aspirate followed by another "in the next syllable" and says "the first one loses the aspiration" in Greek and Sanskrit.
- CONFIRMED | "The pair shows the program's range: the tightly-conditioned dissimilation of aspirates in Greek and Sanskrit, and the deep e/o/zero gradation that English still conjugates every time someone says 'sang'." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law | relation-2-3; E064. The source describes an aspirate followed by another "in the next syllable" and says "the first one loses the aspiration" in Greek and Sanskrit.
- CONFIRMED | "The two reasons an English vowel changes, set side by side \u2014 and they are NOT the same reason. i-mutation (umlaut) is why the plural of foot is feet and of mouse is mice: a lost *-i in the next syllable pulled the vowel forward and then erased itself, the cause deleting its own tracks." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_umlaut | relation-3-1; E065. The source gives "foot ~ feet" from *fōts/*fōtiz, describes i/iː/j conditioning, and explicitly contrasts it with "sing/sang/sung" ablaut. Its English examples also include mouse/mice.
- CONFIRMED | "Ablaut is why sing becomes sang: an inherited alternation of vowel GRADE that marks grammatical role, present in the root from Proto-Indo-European on. foot/feet is umlaut; sing/sang is ablaut." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_umlaut | relation-3-2; E065. The source gives "foot ~ feet" from *fōts/*fōtiz, describes i/iː/j conditioning, and explicitly contrasts it with "sing/sang/sung" ablaut. Its English examples also include mouse/mice.
- CONFIRMED | "One restores a vanished suffix; the other reads a six-thousand-year-old gradation still doing grammatical work." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_umlaut; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language | relation-3-3; E065. Umlaut's conditioning vowel is documented in the first reference; PIE's approximate 4500-2500 BCE date supports the six-thousand-year description. The single umlaut excerpt does not supply the PIE date.
- CONFIRMED | "No one decided that song should be sing with a different vowel \u2014 the alternation was already ancient when English began, and the same machine that conjugates the verb quietly minted the noun." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | frozen-punch-1; E066. "they dramatically altered the Indo-European verbal system"; "This system continued largely intact" refers to Proto-Germanic and the earliest attested Germanic languages, not intact PIE-to-modern-English inheritance.
- CONFIRMED | "Then both froze." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | frozen-punch-2; E066. "they dramatically altered the Indo-European verbal system"; "This system continued largely intact" refers to Proto-Germanic and the earliest attested Germanic languages, not intact PIE-to-modern-English inheritance.
- CONFIRMED | "The word ablaut was coined in this sense in 1819 by Jacob Grimm, in his Deutsche Grammatik" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut | grimm-coinage-clause; E060. The source says "coined in this sense in 1819" and immediately adds "though the word had been used before him"; it explains ab- and Laut and distinguishes umlaut.
- CONFIRMED | "~300-yr half-life · next to fall" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | chart-label-1; E009. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes. N1's own data-file reference verifies what was printed but is not independent evidence for a paper-attributed half-life; Table 1 provides that evidence.
- CONFIRMED | "~14,400-yr half-life · 0% gone" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | chart-label-4; E009. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes. N1's own data-file reference verifies what was printed but is not independent evidence for a paper-attributed half-life; Table 1 provides that evidence.
- CONFIRMED | "~38,800-yr half-life · immortal" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | chart-label-5; E009. Table 1, p. 714, gives the stated bin value; 72%, 43% and 0% and the displayed 300/700/2,000/14,400/38,800-year estimates match. The two highest estimates are extrapolations, not observed lifetimes. N1's own data-file reference verifies what was printed but is not independent evidence for a paper-attributed half-life; Table 1 provides that evidence.
- CONFIRMED | "Old English had ~300 strong verbs and about half survive" | https://alg.manifoldapp.org/read/language-connections-with-the-past-a-history-of-the-english-language/section/b33e0402-eac8-443c-a0dd-4d4b7ca30c60 | round-count; E055. The textbook distinguishes about 300 Old English strong verbs, about 150 surviving words, and about 70 still strong. The page expressly calls the round numbers approximate.
- CONFIRMED | "Bartlett flagged 'dove' as an Americanism in 1859" | https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove | bartlett-1859; E067. "Bartlett (1859) notes it as an Americanism" appears in the linked dive entry displayed on the dove page.
- CONFIRMED | "dialectal · US" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drag; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_irregular_verbs | drug-dialect; E069. Drag traces to strong *draganą, while the modern dictionary gives dragged and lists drug as "dialectal, chiefly US". That supports the modern innovation and regional label; the drag etymology excerpt alone does not document the label.
- CONFIRMED | "road is the o-grade of ride" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/raid%C5%8D | dek-road; E013. "An o-grade nominal formation from *rīdaną"; the noun means "ride, journey". The descendant list includes Old English rād and English road.
- CONFIRMED | "a bond the o-grade of bind" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond | dek-bond; E016. "from Proto-Germanic *bandaz, *bandiz" and "Related to bind." The o-grade inference follows the documented PIE o > Germanic a correspondence; bundle is checked separately.
- CONFIRMED | "a burden the zero-grade of bear" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden | dek-burden; E018. "from Proto-Germanic *burþį̄" and "*bʰer-" support the burden/bear relationship. Germanic ur is the stated reflex of a syllabic r in the zero grade; thorn/eth variants do not change this analysis.
- CONFIRMED | "bairn, burden, birth, barrow, bier" | https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bairn; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/burden; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/birth; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/barrow; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bier; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | birth-relationship; E070. All five nouns trace to the bear root; birth explicitly derives from *bʰŕ̥tis, burden from *burþį̄, barrow from *barwǭ, bier from *bērō, and bairn from *barną. The loose "things borne" description is the shared carrying/bearing family, not a claim that all have the same grade.
- CONFIRMED | "present · e-grade" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb | legend-306; E011. "o → a" and "e → i before m or n followed by another consonant"; the source gives e/o/zero for I-III, u in the participle of IV, and e in the participle of V.
- CONFIRMED | "The ablaut series are English's oldest verbs still moving inside their own vowels \u2014 the living fossil of a morphology that conjugated by flowing." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb | nearby-5; E009. The source says "the strong verbs are the oldest group of verbs in Germanic, originating in Indo-European". The flowing/fossil language is metaphorical; the underlying historical comparison is supported independently of the page itself.
- CONFIRMED | (added) "go · think" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | Added omitted named chart association: this tick is paired with "~14,400-yr half-life · 0% gone". Table 1 puts go and think in the 10^-2 to 10^-1 bin, with 0% regularization and 14,400 years. Location: research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs:176.
- CONFIRMED | (added) "be · have" | https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf | Added omitted named chart association: this tick is paired with "~38,800-yr half-life · immortal". Table 1 puts be/have in the highest-frequency bin, with 0% regularization and 38,800 years. Immortal is the page's metaphor for the modeled long lifetime. Location: research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs:177.
- CONFIRMED | (added) "a piece bitten off" | https://www.etymonline.com/word/bit; https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bit | Added omitted noun-card gloss. Etymonline gives Old English bita "piece bitten off" and "a piece (of food) bitten off, morsel"; Wiktionary gives bita "bit; fragment; morsel" from *bitô. Location: research/sing-sang-sung/data.mjs:154.

## Findings

- [fixed] X1 (bring-dialect-exclusion): Qualified the opening, meta description, og description and markdown question as Standard English. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X2 (ablaut-inherited-intact): Removed intact from the HTML lede and markdown dek. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X3 (seven-classes-by-following-sounds): Restricted the following-sounds explanation in HTML, markdown dek and markdown body to I-V and described VI/VII separately. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X4 (class-seven-fixed-vowel-pattern): Replaced the universal fixed-pattern claim, and made the check descriptions say four slots with placeholders for VII. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X5 (drive-mixed-paradigm): Used the sourced Proto-Germanic series in the explanatory prose and corrected WALL drive past *draif to *draib. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X6 (chew-misstated-principal-parts): Replaced chew/chowen with the explicitly Old English past and participle forms, preserving strong ancestry. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X7 (always-weak-ancestry): Changed the introductory analogy sentence to verbs with established weak forms; left the separately listed MINOR analogy note unchanged. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X8 (chew-misstated-principal-parts): Replaced chew/chowen with the explicitly Old English past and participle forms, preserving strong ancestry. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X10 (bier-o-grade): Kept bairn and barrow in the o-grade list and described the related bier separately as lengthened e-grade. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X11 (drive-mixed-paradigm): Used the sourced Proto-Germanic series in the explanatory prose and corrected WALL drive past *draif to *draib. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X12 (participle-suffix-as-ablaut-grade): Replaced the giv-EN and giv-en/-un comparisons in the WALL source note and Class V explanation with the historical root vowel. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X13 (speak-class-direction): Kept the historical V example and stated its adoption of Class IV-type spoke/spoken forms; also corrected the compound panel suffix explanation under X14. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X14 (participle-suffix-as-ablaut-grade): Replaced the giv-EN and giv-en/-un comparisons in the WALL source note and Class V explanation with the historical root vowel. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X15 (speak-class-direction): Kept the historical V example and stated its adoption of Class IV-type spoke/spoken forms; also corrected the compound panel suffix explanation under X14. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X16 (song-source-certainty): Fixed within sing-sang-sung: restored Perhaps and a marked omission in the quotation, qualified the wall note and honest-edge attribution, and corrected the markdown attribution, with a dated correction mirrored on the page and in markdown. On 2026-10-18 the copy in the-cause-you-read-backwards was corrected: its frozen-noun caption (public/strata/the-cause-you-read-backwards/index.html:197 and research/the-cause-you-read-backwards/build-page.mjs:219) now quotes "Perhaps an o-grade nominal derived from an earlier form [...] from *singwaną", the embedded PORTAL (index.html:229) was re-synced from data.mjs so the song card no longer says Wiktionary "states it outright", and a dated Corrected 2026-10-18 line is on that page and in its markdown; board note f6c7c3 is closed.
- [fixed] X17 (bier-o-grade): Kept bairn and barrow in the o-grade list and described the related bier separately as lengthened e-grade. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X18 (song-source-certainty): Fixed within sing-sang-sung, with the correction mirrored on the page and in markdown. The shared copy in the-cause-you-read-backwards was corrected on 2026-10-18 with X16 (caption, song card, dated Corrected 2026-10-18 line); board note f6c7c3 is closed.
- [declined] X19 (half-life-law-exactness): no edit under the directing triage tier C decision. I re-read and visually inspected Lieberman et al. (2007), https://langev.com/pdf/lieberman07verbFrequencyNATURE.pdf, p. 714. The fitted rates have slopes near -0.51 and -0.48, and the half-life discussion says "approximately". The square-root model and 100-to-10 illustration are supported; exact overstates empirical precision. Keep MINOR and list at tier C. X20/X21 affect the following sentence, so their quotation correction does not trigger the same-sentence exception here.
- [fixed] X20 (newly-wed-altered-quotation): Restored the full short quotation with its inner punctuation and specified the denominator as verbs in the same sentence. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X21 (newly-wed-altered-quotation): Restored the full short quotation with its inner punctuation and specified the denominator as verbs in the same sentence. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X22 (six-bins-five-displayed): Changed the caption to five selected bins; retained the existing five data points. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X23 (six-bins-five-displayed): Changed the caption to five selected bins; retained the existing five data points. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [declined] X24 (dove-analogy-certainty): no edit under the directing triage tier C decision. I re-read https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove, its dive-history paragraph: the proposed drive/drove analogy is introduced with "perhaps". It still supports the weak Modern English form, the modern emergence of dove, and the Bartlett date. The note identifies overconfident wording of a plausible etymological explanation, not proof of a different origin. Keep MINOR and list at tier C; this is not the sentence corrected for X7. X31 duplicates the same qualification issue.
- [declined] X25 (caught-analogy-certainty): no edit under the directing triage tier C decision. Decided from the lone MINOR note under rule 4. The checker supports the loanword and earlier catched, while the proposed lacchen/laught influence is qualified rather than disproved. Record the omitted uncertainty as loose causal wording at tier C. This sentence is not otherwise being fixed for a WRONG item. Do not change the weak-verb classification merely because an etymological source uses strong loosely.
- [fixed] X26 (song-source-certainty): Fixed within sing-sang-sung, with the correction mirrored on the page and in markdown. The shared "outright" attribution copied in the-cause-you-read-backwards was corrected on 2026-10-18 with X16 (song card re-synced, caption qualified, dated Corrected 2026-10-18 line); board note f6c7c3 is closed.
- [fixed] X27 (all-frozen-nouns-o-grade): Made the framing allow both o-grade and zero-grade nouns. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X28 (ablaut-inherited-intact): Removed intact from the HTML lede and markdown dek. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X29 (seven-classes-by-following-sounds): Restricted the following-sounds explanation in HTML, markdown dek and markdown body to I-V and described VI/VII separately. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [open note:3eef06] X30 (grimm-word-coinage): Fixed within sing-sang-sung: restored the technical-sense qualification in the markdown relation note, with a dated correction mirrored on the page and in markdown. The older quotation remains unannotated at public/strata/there-here/index.html:250 and research/lineage-edge-grammar/page.json:1, notes[1111]. Preserve that historical quotation and add a correction annotation through research/lineage-edge-grammar/copy-corrections.mjs. Those other-layer files cannot be edited by this repair worker; see the board-note request in research/assay-line/cited-1014b/sing-sang-sung/repair-report.md.
- [declined] X31 (dove-analogy-certainty): no edit under the directing triage tier C decision. I re-read https://www.etymonline.com/word/dove: the dive-history paragraph introduces the drive/drove explanation with "perhaps". It supports that analogy as a proposal but not a witnessed, certain origin. Keep this certainty qualification MINOR and list at tier C. It duplicates X24, and it is not in X7's always-weak sentence.
- [fixed] X32 (ablaut-inherited-intact): Removed intact from the HTML lede and markdown dek. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X33 (past-legend-universal-o-grade): Removed universal grade labels from the color legend and its CSS comments; tense colors remain and individual notes explain grades. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X34 (participle-legend-universal-zero-grade): Removed the universal grade label from the color legend and its CSS comment; kept the correct historical e-grade account for given. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] X35 (adjective-order-universal-rule): Added an accurate outgoing relation note to this layer markdown and regenerated this layer nearby fragment from it, without editing the other layer or shared generator. A single dated correction for this error is on the page and mirrored at the end of the markdown body; duplicate item IDs share that correction.
- [fixed] V1: renamed the verifier assertion to regularization-rate slope, keeping the correct numeric check. This is a MINOR verifier-label correction, recorded here with no page correction line.